Using religion to resolve conflicts

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This topic has for some years been important to me. It was the topic I chose to write about in my graduate studies for conflict resolution. Most people just hear about how religion leads to destruction and war and we do not hear about how it can be used as a force for peace to resolve conflicts as well. I revisited what I submitted for my studies years ago and made it internet friendly and shortened it. Any religion has the potential to be used positivily and it applies to all religions, but I am just here writing about the faith that I have. I will paste you to the conflict transformation models. I think I may write about how different cultures tend to have different communication skills as well. I will not paste the two longest case studies on South Africa TRC and Guatamala.

Any thoughts and does this surprise you that religion can be used positivly to resolve conflicts as well?


The constructive use of Religion in conflict resolution


In Christianity Jesus and God were at heart anti violent and were proportional in application of its judgement. God’s views are clearly reflected in Psalm 11 "The Lord examines the righteous, but the wicked, those who love violence, he hates with a passion." The Church of England in the UK now works on a model called the five marks of mission. One of the church’s mission is to seek to transform unjust structures of society to challenge violence of every kind and to peruse peace and reconciliation.

With me and my personality I find that my faith's justice principles has given me more zeal to fight against injustice when I sometimes see it.

I will now discuss how conflict resolution can be applied to ameliorate modern day destructive conflict in society. In many parts of the world today, especially in developing countries, religion is still an integral part to the lives of many. Religion can be used constructively or destructively and it is the destructive use of religion that often makes headline news, whereas the constructive use of religion receives little or no attention.

In this article I will centre on the constructive use of religion faith based conflict resolution which is a form of track 2 diplomacy in application. In this article I will argue that religion can be used constructively to contribute towards resolving conflicts. Therefore religion can be utilised as a force for peace in the international arena.

Faith-based actors have had an impact on the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) and contributed to rebooting South Africa with a new moral consciousness. The Catholic lay international (NGO) Sant' Egidio has helped to play a part in the signing of the Guatemalan peace accords. Faith based actors have also played a part in the peace negotiations in Northern Ireland and I will briefly discuss in this article how this happened. I will also briefly highlight some other conflicts in passing that religion has contributed to resolving.

The constructive use of religion has clear implications for conflict resolution. We need to learn to apply conflict resolution skills and tools in our management of dispute mediation.
I hope some of you enjoy reading it and learning how religion can be used constructively to resolve conflicts.


Introduction
The re-emergence of religion as a political actor in international relations has not gone without tension. Eminent social scientists, such as Max Weber and Auguste Comte, predicted the demise of religion as societies advanced. Instead, in international relations, what we have been witnessing since the 1979 Iranian Revolution is the steady re-emergence of religion as a political actor.
Faith-based actors orientate their peace-building and conflict resolution around the values of their faith and their faith shapes their outlook. They can mediate in conflicts that may be termed religious or have a religious component which does not limit their peacebuilding to conflicts surrounding religion. Secular individiuals can also be trained in peacebuilding in religious disputes and peacebuilding iniatives.

Faith based dispute management can be iniated by indivdiual actors or institutions/organisations and by inter-religious councils.

I argue in this article that whilst it cannot be reasonably denied that religion can be used destructively. Faith based conflict resolution, which is a form of track 2 diplomacy or is now sometimes referred to as track 7 diplomacy can also contribute towards resolving conflicts.

This ability of religion to be used constructively or destructively is the dual nature of religion and what is at the heart of Scott Appleby’s terminology the ‘Ambivalence of the Sacred' (Appleby 2000). Faith based conflict resolution offers the potential for rich resources of peace-building that are often missed. The constructive use of religion has clear implications for domestic and international relations.
What we have been witnessing since the end of the Cold War is the destabilisation it left behind.

The legacy of imperialism and colonialism in many parts of the world is also still being felt today. We are also witnessing a reaction against Western supremacy and ideologies in some parts of the world.
Track 1 diplomacy hard power has essentially proved ineffective on its own in managing emerging conflicts. The UN was late to recognise this but, now recognises the contribution that faith- based actors can have in working towards securing a securer world.

Megan Shore makes the case that, if religion is part of the problem then it needs to also be part of the solution (Shore 2009:3). What we have been witnessing are new ways of exploration and rejection, and in some countries this has surfaced through religion, I will explore this further on.

Religion is for many people a strong component of identity, values and norms and therefore, may help determine peoples’ moral compass and what they are willing or not willing to do. This is crucial to take into account within the realms of conflict resolution. Religious leaders, with their unique positioning can be influential figures in their communities and can also make a positive contribution in resolving conflicts.

What I aim to demonstrate in this article is the latent potential of faith based conflict resolution and what I present is just the tip of the iceberg but my case studies should be able to provide useful insights for other cases. I concentrate on religions of the Abrahamic faith tradition in this article but all religions have the potential to be used constructively. Religious peacebuilders guided by the underlying principles of their faith can attempt to get disputants to tap into the positive conflict resolution tools that can be found within their own sacred texts.

Identity Politics

Religion continues to be an important part of many individual’s lives around the world. The latter part of the 20th century gave rise to a resurgence of religion in many countries such as, the United States, South Africa, Nigeria and China (Moghadam 2003:20-39). This resurgence was the most profound in Russia and the Slavic Republics - what was repressed under Communism was now resurfacing.
There are different parts that make up an individual's identity for example: religion, ethnicity and gender are just a few. Identities are fluid and some people's religious identity will be more pronounced than others. To some people their faith is central and underpins all that they do. Religion can give people motivation and shape peoples’ world-views and impact on how they live their lives and be their modus operandi.

Religion can help define an individual’s value system and give them rules to live by and norms. Norms reflect patterned behaviour which Andrew Hurrell argues gives rise to normative expectations about what ought to be done (Carlsnaes,Thomas, Simmons 2002: 143).
Some individual's will build a sense of shared community around their place of worship. This can help to solidify their religious identity and therefore their dependence on their place of worship and their religious leaders. In some traditional communities the church or their place of worship may be the bedrock of their community.

If a conflict involves two groups from different faiths and ethnicities, then the conflict is termed as ethnoreligious. Individual's can fight to protect their ethnicity and religion when they feel either is under threat which can make these conflicts more intractable and protracted.
If a conflict involves a strong religious element then religion will need to be taken account in this conflict and faith based actors will need to play a role in building sustainable peace and I will explore this more in my next chapter on conflict transformation.
Religion can impact on how people interpret reality. A strong sense of religious identity can give religious leaders more credibility in their communities.


Conflict Transformation


Theory

The term conflict resolution, implies, that a conflict has been resolved and that the nature of a conflict has changed into one that is no longer hostile or violent. Conflict resolution can include arbitration, mediation and negation. At the "deepest level of conflict resolution is a conflict transformation approach"(Miall, Woodhouse 2005:8). Conflict transformation suggests that there has been a deep change in the relationships of those involved in a conflict and in the situation that led to that conflict.
Peace-building is the term most commonly used for post-conflict reconstruction and reconcilation by indivdiual actors or institutions/organisations and inter- religious councils. Face based actors do recieve most often training in religious dispute management.

Lederach devised a Levels of Leadership pyramid that was based on Adam Curle’s ‘Making Peace'(Lederach 1995:12). At the top level tier (Level 1) are those with high levels of visibility. These can include high profile religious leaders, political or military officials. At Level 2 are those well respected figures in the community and religious leaders can also operate at this level. Level 3 is the grassroots level.

Faith based actor’s work can engage in working to reduce prejudice and other grassroots peace-building in their communities. Faith-based actors working at grassroots level peace-building and working in the community can act as voices for those in their local community and pressure those higher up to implement change- this is known as a bottoms-up approach. A peace-building from below approach draws on resources from the local community to work towards trying to bring about change, over the long-term, by laying down the building blocks and foundations for peace.

Faith based actors can also have a top-down effect. What this means is that those higher up at the Level 1 tier in (Lederach’s levels of Leadership pyramid) are in a position to try to influence those in power that may able to make changes. They may also have the contacts to do this. If these changes are implemented, they will trickle down and, in some cases and potentially improve the conditions of peoples’ lives.

Also, forgiveness, forgiveness can be defined as "the forswearing of resentment, the resolute over-coming of anger and hatred that are naturally directed towards a person who has done an unjustified non-excused moral wrong" (Murphy, Jeffrey 1998:15) and reconciliation in conflict resolution can be defined as “the restoring of broken relationships and learning to live non-violently with radical differences” (Miall, Woodhouse 2005:231).

Forgiveness, reconciliation and repentance are deeply rooted in the Abrahamic tradition but strongly accentuated in Christianity. Yehudith Auerbach argues that forgiveness is a necessary though not sufficient condition for resolving conflicts that are identity based (Auerbach 2005:469).

Reconciliation is the end goal of conflict transformation. Auerbach notes some debate in conflict resolution as to whether reconciliation leads to forgiveness and debate about if whether there is a casual link between forgiveness and reconciliation and it is a contested area (Auerbach 2005:477). However, it can be said that some faith-based actors can because, of their faith, develop a real motivation in trying to get disputants to repent, forgive and reconcile as, these requirements are explicitly stated in their religious texts and are their norms as we saw in the TRC with Archbishop Desmond Tutu.

Forgiveness can lead to reconciliation in some cases; so it encourages the restoration of ruptured relationships which is clearly advantageous in peace-building. Forgiveness on its own is a positive end. Whether religious leaders always achieve this is not in question here. These themes, forgiveness, reconciliation and repentance can contribute to the transformation of conflicts and building sustainable peace. Appleby states that religious actors are the least vulnerable to treat reconciliation as managed or efficient (Appleby 2000: 195).

Faith-based actors can also be involved in transnational justice and truth commissions. Transnational justice is the transitioning of an undemocratic or totalitarian rule to a democratic one and truth commissions are political processes but as we saw with the South African TRC faith based actors can shape the direction of Truth Commissions and this will become evidently clear through my case study on the South African TRC.

Faith based actors can also be engaged in conflict resolution in various other ways also. A religious leader’s position in the community can give them credibility and legitmacy and they can use their position to influence those in their community and bring clarity to disputes.

Religion can be used as a ‘soft’ power - this phrase was first used by Joseph Nye. It essentially means that, through the power of persuasion and attractive ideas, you can influence the actions of others (Haynes 2007:125). Hard Power such a military intervention can only be used at best as a short term sticking plaster as it is not a fix and especially not in the resolution of protracted deep-rooted conflicts. Soft power can be used either directly or indirectly.

Religious leaders, in some communities because of their credibility and influence that they hold, will be in a position to use this power constructively or destructively. This soft power can give religious leaders a unique leverage to resolve conflicts. In societies where religious leaders are respected they are also in a position to try and get those in their community to support peace processes and can therefore be good mobilisers for peace.

Also, some religious leaders will be critically engaged in a constant re-visioning of their texts and drawing on those that promote peace. Furthermore, the potential constructive universal message that religious leaders can put over is unquestionable. Douglas Johnson makes clear that faith-based actors can draw on a range of spiritual tools such as prayer, rituals and scripture (Johnson 2003:16-17). We saw this quite clearly in the South African TRC and I will discuss this in greater detail in my case study.

In some cases having a local faith-based actor, that may be indigenous to your community may help to make some individuals to be more receptive. Faith based actors may be seen as more trustworthy in their community and they may also likely know the needs of their community and this is something that just cannot be learnt in a book.

Both soft and hard power approaches should be seen as complementary and we should determine what the best steps to take are to ameliorate conflicts and let that serve as a guide. As Krishan Berg Harpiken and Hanne Eggen Roislen have argued "by virtue of the organization and normative system they represent, religious authorities may have a credibility that it is difficult for a nonreligious peace broker to acquire" (Harpviken, Roislen 2008 :365).
Appleby has stated that faith based actors are more likely to be successful when they have an international or transnational reach, if they emphasise peace avoidance over force and if they have good relationships with people from different religions (Appleby 2000: 1-2).

Appleby has also stated that the interventionist mode, where faith- based actors is invited to resolve conflicts are the most promising area for faith-based actors (Appleby 2000: 239).
Of course, if faith-based actors are invited to mediate then it shows that there is some willingness there to change and that their position is also respected. And what may confound some is that Appleby also argues that religious actors make the most impact when they remain religious actors and not when they are moderating their faith (Appleby 2000:16). It is important to note also as Johnson states that if there has been an impasse with Track 1 diplomacy that we need to look at other avenues and sometimes a faith- based actor as I have already demonstrated and as my case studies will demonstrate can help to break that impasse.

Different countries may demand different styles of communication and resolution. Some traditional cultures are more emic (insider culture/member orienated to resolve) in nature and Western approaches are more etic (are more led by outsiders to resolve) in nature and to resolve these conflicts these approaches may be used to guide them. Negotiators and mediators can draw on a repertoire of approaches according to the need and subject matter. Direct communication which uses confrontation, face to face negotiation, directness and frankness in stating demands are also seen as prized in western conflict models. Indirect communication is used more in traditional cultures which may be more less outspoken and refined in operation.

Orellana and Nimer (2008) have noted that lack of funds as an obstacle for faith- based actors carrying out their work (Nimer, Orellana 2008:573). This is a very valid point. In some traditional countries there is a lack of funds for peace-building and faith based-actors will not be in a position to engage in peace-building and conflict resolution.

Chapter 3


Northern Ireland
Faith based actor’s faith can make them resolute and determined in their quest for peace. In the Northern Ireland conflict although reaching the stage where the Northern Ireland conflict is at now was clearly a collaborative effort faith-based actors had a part to play in trying to resolve this conflict.

Reverend Roy Magee and Father Alex Reid, negotiated cease fires with the paramilitaries in 1994 and that was a part of the process that led to the signing of the Good Friday agreement in 1998 (Rte.ie 2nd February 2009) At times they risked their lives because they were driven by their faith to find a solution to this conflict (Little 2007:53). Father Alex Reid has also spoken about how he saw the paramilitaries as regular people (ibid:78). He saw the humanity in them and faith based actors because of their norms and values can them see the humanity in all also because of their belief that we are all our creators’ children.

Sierra Leone
In Sierra Leone the inter-religious council was an active broker that played a major part in the Lome Accord being signed.

Bosnia and Herzegovina
Branka Peuraca conducted a study in 2001-2002 in Bosnia Herezgovina. Peuraca was commissioned by the United States Institute of Peace (USIP) to investigate if whether faith based non-governmental advisors (NGO’s) can advance interfaith reconciliation. Peuraca’s objective in this study was to assess the role that faith based (NGO’s) have had in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Peuraca’s study she found that faith based NGO’s did have a role to play in conflict mediation and prevention (Peuraca 2003:11).

I just wrote it yesterday. If you want to read the two further case studies, you can at my blog and I will link to it.

Very interesting thoughts, thank you.

I am going to respond to you from a Christian perspective. If we are talking about all Abrahamic religions the conversation would differ. With Christianity an eye for an eye ‘Lex Talions” ended with the birth of Jesus Christ. We are not expected now to seek revenge on wrongdoing but are expected to forgive our enemy if they ask for forgiveness and if they are repentant.
We are also expected to reconcile with those that have grieved us. It’s principles are set out in Matthew 5:38-44.
We are told that God will seek revenge for us in his own time.
We can though use the law of the land and seek justice through the courts just the same as everyone else and using the Old Testament as an example of respecting the law of the land.
We are though expected to protect our Temples which reside in us and Jesus himself drove out the money lenders from selling in front of the Temple. So, you don’t have to sit there and listen to someone’s insults that demeans you and your body just because you are wanting to sit pretty as a Christian. You can give them a bit of a wide birth as well in good judgement.
In the Old Testament Lex Talions was framed the Old Testament laws- Leviticus 24 17-21 which is also framed around the Ten Commandments. Christianity brought an end to this.
We are told to also give loving service to others in need and donate when we can. This is also a part of justice. We are not expected to live lavishly and distribute what we have and to care for the land.

"To respond to human need by loving service"
" To seek to transform unjust structures of society to challenge violence of every kind and to persue peace and reconcilation"

Other Abrahamic traditions do also have scope for reconciliation within them. A case model has been Christian and Muslim relations in Nigeria which I have written a case study of in the past.

You listed a lot of ways to seek justice.
But my question is not solved: What is justice?

I'd be curious if religion causes more conflicts or contributes to resolving more conflicts.

Monotheistic religions seem particularly prone to causing conflict given that they all inherently claim a monopoly on the correct understanding of god. In recent years they've gotten better at agreeing to disagree, but I see no reason that trend can't reverse.

There are forms of different justice and you cannot I think just collapse it into one.
There is retributitive justice (the emphasis is on punishment of the wrongdoer) and restorative justice (correcting imbalances and restoring past relationships). It goes beyond that as well. Some people will be satisfied with simply being given an apology by someone and they forgive them. Someone else might be looking for a repatration (a settlement).

There is also social justice, gender justice, criminal justice and racial justice.

The stance of the Christian faith generally tries to address injustice where they see it. They are geared towards restorative justice, reconcilation and forgiveness.

If people are interested in the subject of religious peacebuilding then this website may be one to look at. The United Institue of Peace website used to be another, but I cannot get it to come up on my end.
Here is another such website though. The Tanenbaum website on interreligious peace building.
https://tanenbaum.org/
I find this page interesting about up to date conflict resolution the staff have been involved in. Obviously Desmond Tutu is not a member. May be this helps answering the question someone had on the ratio of cases positive use versus negative use of religion.
https://tanenbaum.org/about-us/what-we- ... acemakers/

I thought I would link you directly as well to my article I wrote on this which I pasted in the first post but the link involves the South African case study and more.
https://racheltestimony.blogspot.com/20 ... on-in.html

I am going to explore this area further myself. I am diagnosed with autism and an eating disorder. I have suffered from severe anorexia for much of my adult life. I started an IR graduate course in my 20s and had to leave for health reasons. I intended to work for the UN but it didn't happen due to my health. I am glad now that by using my faith I get to use my work on my blog on peacebuilding. I always enjoyed the conflict resolution models in my studies at MA on IR which I did end up passing in my mid 30s spanning two years for my health. I looked into doing more graduate work on it and even employment, but all UN voluntary things were abroad.

The project seems very timely now as well as given some Church's are motivated to work towards justice and reconcilation.

I certainly will be revisiting this and thank you so far for the interesting discussion. I am now hopefully about to start though work in another area in real life, but this remains a strong interest.